The purpose of the study is to examine the role and impacts of growth hormone in maximizing animal products. Growth hormones are biological stimulants that are found either naturally in the organism or synthetically manufactured. Phytoestrogens, phytoprogestrons and Phenolic compounds are hormones from plants. Drugs from of placenta and colostrums of cow`s contain progesterone, estrogene, gonadotropin, and prostaglandins hormones. Growth hormones have got popular applications in dairy, beef, feed improvement and Biopharmaceutical productions with the aim of producing valuable products: fat free meat (Porcine Somatotropin hormone in pigs), nutritionally and medicinally reach milk (Bovine Somatotropin hormone in cattle), palatable and disease and insect pest resistant forage crop production. They have got also contribution in maximizing livestock production by involving in adjusting animals' reproductive process such as oestrus synchronization and superovulation mainly during artificial insemination and embryo transfer. Controversially, these hormones have wide impacts on human being, animal welfare, environment and etc. Contamination of ground water by hormones that are found in the animals` excreta will cause deleterious effects such as cancer, loss of fertility, and some imbalance of minerals in the water and soil.

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Turkish Journal of Agriculture - Food Science and Technology, 9(6): 975-981, 2021

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24925/turjaf.v9i6.975-981.3852

Turkish Journal of Agriculture - Food Science and Technology

Available online, ISSN: 2148-127X

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Turkish Science and Technology Publishing (TURSTEP)

The Role and Impacts of Growth Hormones in Maximizing Animal

Production- A review

Duguma Dibbisa1,a,*, Ararsa Duguma2,b

1School of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Haramaya University, P. O. Box, 138 Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

2College of Veterinary Medicine, Haramaya University, P.O. Box, 138 Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

*Corresponding author

Review Article

Received : 30 /08 /2020

Accepted : 02 /03 /2021

The purpose of the study is to examine the role and impacts of growth hormone in maximizing

animal products. Growth hormones are biological stimulants that are found either naturally in the

organism or synthetically manufactured. Phytoestrogens, phytoprogestrons and Phenolic

compounds are hormones from plants. Drugs from of placenta and colostrums of cow`s contain

progesterone, estrogene, gonadotropin, and prostaglandins hormones. Growth hormones have got

popular applications in dairy, beef, feed improvement and Biopharmaceutical productions with the

aim of producing valuable products: fat free meat (Porcine Somatotropin hormone in pigs),

nutritionally and medicinally reach milk (Bovine Somatotropin hormone in cattle), palatable and

disease and insect pest resistant forage crop production. They have got also contribution in

maximizing livestock production by involving in adjusting animals' reproductive process such as

oestrus synchronization and superovulation mainly during artificial insemination and embryo

transfer. Controversially, these hormones have wide impacts on human being, animal welfare,

environment and etc. Contamination of ground water by hormones that are found in the animals`

excreta will cause deleterious effects such as cancer, loss of fertility, and some imbalance of

minerals in the water and soil.

Keywords:

Animal production

Environmental contamination

Growth hormone

Reproduction

Pharmaceutical production

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2534-6337

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1744-8381

This work is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

Introduction

Hormones are bioactive used to increase the feed

efficiency, average daily gain, and carcass quality or milk

production of animals. Genetics and nutrition are the two

most important factors; however, growth promoters can

improve the efficiency of animals. Growth hormones

provide many functions for healthy body performance in

enhancing animal production and productivities. They

stimulate skeletal growth, protein anabolism (food

conversion to living tissue) in many tissues that increase

protein synthesis and decreased oxidation of proteins.

Growth hormones also enhance availability of fat by

stimulating breaking down of triglyceride and maintain

blood glucose within normal range (National Academic

Press, 2002).

There are five primary growth hormones in animal

production: Somatotropins, Thyroxines, Glucocortoids,

Androgens and Estrogens. Each species has its own

somatotropin hormone that affects their growth. For

instant, porcine somatotropin has been supplemented to

increase leanness in hog carcasses, bovine somatotropin

(BST) to increase milk production in dairy cows,

Thyroxine to regulate metabolism of the cell, and

glucocortoids to stimulate weight loss by mobilizing

nutrients stored in the body. Androgens are produced by

the testes in males (testosterone) and by the adrenal gland

in females (Estrogens) both for muscle and bone growth,

development of the secondary sexual characteristics and

promote growth by stimulating the secretion of other

growth hormone (CAERT, 2006).

There are six hormone growth promotants (HGPs)

approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

for cattle industry to enhance beef production in

1956.These include three naturally occurring hormones:

Oestradiol, Progesterone and Testosterone and three

synthetically prepared hormones: Zeranol, Trenbolone,

and Melengestrol. They are implanted or injected into

cattle in various stages of maturity. The FDA however,

does not permit injecting calves with these hormones. The

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976

male hormone testosterone and its synthetic equivalent

trenbolone acetate, and the female hormone progesterone

including three synthetic derivatives zeranol, 17 beta-

estradiol, and melengestrol acetate (MGA) are either

implanted or injected into the cows. Melengestrol is a feed

additive and is not injected, but added to the feedstock

(Growth hormone in food, 2011).

Hormones play critical role in adjusting reproductive

processes in animal production. These are stimulation or

spermatogenesis, regular collection of semen and enriching

its quality (for male); stimulation of ovogenesis, regulation

of ovulation and the synchronisation of the estruses in the

large groups of animals (Kistanova, 2003).

GHs are also part of artificially created environment in

the laboratory, media, for in vitro animal cell or tissue

culture which require a wide range of complex

combination of nutrients and essential ingredients to

support survival and proliferation or differentiation.

Growth factors and hormones (Hydrocortisone, Insulin,

Triodothyronine, and Thyroxine) are the essential nutrients

externally supplemented in the medium. Genetically

engineered poultry, swine, goats, cattle, and other livestock

also are beginning to be used as generators of

pharmaceutical and other products, potential sources for

replacement organs for humans, and models for human

disease (Coleman, 1996; Murray and Maga, 1999) .

The genetically engineered hormones or growth

promotants such as human (HST), bovine (BST) and

procine (PST) somatotropin, interferon, lymphokines etc.

are in the field-testing stage. They are ready to market for

use in human and veterinary medicine to correct growth

retardation and make hogs to grow faster with less fat and

leaner production of dairy cattle (Kolodziej et al., 2004).

Growth hormones are economically important for

reproductive manipulations in livestock: genetic

improvement, artificial insemination, embryo transfer and

others. Contrarily, many researches output reveal also as

they had got long lasting adverse impacts on dairy and beef

productions, human health and on environments. Many

hormones from recombinant bovine somatotropin milk and

porcine somatotropin meat, steroid hormones can be

retained to ground water through animal excreta. These

cause ground water pollution as well as cancer,

reproductive effects and endocrine disruption to human

being (Harter et al., 2004). Nowadays, the world

population has been constantly increasing and needs great

attention of scientists to overcome the problem. No

phenomenon this is made scientists to try improves the

animal product maximization and its associated

derivatives. It is very crucial to evaluate the role and

impacts of growth hormone in animal production sectors.

Therefore, the objective of this review paper was to

investigate the role and impacts of growth hormone in

maximizing animal production.

The Growth Hormone

Growth hormone ( GH) is a peptide hormone that

stimulates growth, cell reproduction and regeneration in

humans and other animals. Growth hormones are chemical

substances produced naturally in different glands, which in

minute quantities influence the performance of specialized

groups of cells. Growth hormone is a 191-amino acid,

single-chain polypeptide, synthesized, stored, and secreted

by the somatotrophin cells within the lateral wings of the

anterior pituitary gland into the hypophyseal portal venous

blood (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). The secretion of

GH is controlled by neurosecretory nuclei of the

hypothalamus (Growth hormone-releasing

hormone/somatocrinin and growth hormone-inhibiting

hormone/somatostatin) . However, although the balance of

these stimulating and inhibiting peptides determines GH

release, this balance is affected by many physiological

stimulators and inhibitors of GH secretion (e.g., Free fatty

acids) (Lindsley et al., 2009).

Inhibitors of GH secretion include somatostatin from

the periventricular nucleus, circulating concentrations of

GH and IGF-1 (negative feedback on the pituitary and

hypothalamus), hyperglycemia, glucocorticoids and

dihydrotestosterone (Lindsley et al., 2009; Pandey et al.,

1999). In addition to control by endogenous and stimulus

processes, a number of foreign compounds (xenobiotics

such as drugs and endocrine disruptors) are known to

influence GH secretion and function (Scarth, 2006).

Growth Hormones act by interacting with a specific

receptor on the surface of cells. For example: increase in

height in animals is the most widely known effect of GH is

stimulated by at least two mechanisms. Initially it is

because of fat-insolubility of polypeptide hormones that

they cannot penetrate sarcolemma. Thus, GH exerts some

of its effects by binding to receptors on target cells, where

it activates the MAPK/ERK pathway (Binder et al., 2007).

Through by this mechanism growth hormone directly

stimulates division and multiplication of chondrocytes

cartilage. Additionally, growth hormone stimulate through

the JAK-STAT signaling pathway, the production of

insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1, formerly known as

somatomedin), a hormone homologous to proinsulin

(http://www.lib.mcg.edu/edu/eshuphysio/program/section

5/5ch2/s5ch2_19.htm).

Liver is a major target organ of GH for this process and

is the principal site of IGF-1 production. IGF-1 has growth-

stimulating effects on a wide variety of tissues.

ImmunoglobulinF-1 can be generated within target tissues,

making it what appear to be both an endocrine and an

autocrine hormone. IGF-1 also has stimulatory effects on

osteoblast and chondrocyte activity to promote bone growth.

Sources of Growth Hormones Used in livestock

production

The use of synthetic hormones has numerous negative

consequences: interruption of natural hormones status,

change in quality of products due to accumulation of

hormonal drugs in meat and milk of animals (Kistanova,

2003). These problems forced to use natural sources of

hormones for success of reproductive processes from plant

and animal products which have the ability to stimulate the

reproductive functions in animals.

The popular hormones of an animal origin are drugs

from of placenta of cows, cow`s colostrums and colostrums

drugs (Shubbina, 1995; Habbibulin, 1998). They contain a

complex of natural hormones: progesterone, estrogene,

gonadotropin, prostaglandins, and also vitamins, trace

substances and other biologically active materials. All

these components enhance functions of a uterus and

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ovaries by rendering a promoting effect on nervous system;

activate immune system and all physiological processes of

the metabolism. They also promote fast regeneration of the

broken functions by diseases of the reproductive organs

and reduce twice the dose of expensive synthetic drugs by

their joint use (Shubina et al., 1996).

Plants also contain hormones playing great role in the

regulation of the reproductive processes of animals. More

than 300 plants and plant products contain phytoestrogens

and phytoestrogens and phytoprogestrons (Thigpen et al.,

1999). Phenolic compounds (coumarines, isoflavones, and

steroids) whose chemical nature and action are similar to

animal steroids hormones are the most important active

substance of plants (Palfii and Malik, 1998). Example

drugs from pumpkin stimulate physiological activity

enhance reproduction functions of animals. Phytoestrogens

influence positively all physiological functions of an

organism rendering the stimulant, the estrogenic effect on

the central nervous system, these compounds induce the

estrus, stimulate the biosynthesis processes in tissues of a

reproductive organs of female animals (Thigpen et al.,

1999). Reduce risk of originating the cancer diseases of

reproductive organs (Le bail et al., 2000). In medicine

phytoestrogenic drugs are used as alternatives to classical

hormones therapy (Huber, 2000). It is said that the

phytoestrogens can protect against breast cancer.

Phytoestrogens and phytoprogestrons extracts with

optimum doses can be used in animal breeding practices

for stimulation of reproductive functions of female animals

at the different stages of a sexual development. Other

stimulants from plants also can be applied for the

improvement of sperm quality by conservation in vitro

(Kistanova, 2003). For example: the in vitro investigation

of ram and bull sperm reveals that plant hormone

gibberellins A activates the motility and live ability of

spermatozoids in fresh and stored ram sperm as well as in

post-thaw bull sperm bull sperm in vitro whose

effectiveness depends on the concentration of gibberellins

A (Kistanova et al., 2001; Kolev et al., 2000). Since it is

one way of receiving economically clean products, the use

natural stimulants in reproduction of domestic animals will

develop tremendously.

Applications of Growth Hormones in Dairy Farm

Bovine somatotropin (BST) is a hormone naturally

secreted by the pituitary glands of cows. Traces of BST are

found in the milk secreted by the hormone injected animal.

BST is also known as BGH, or bovine growth hormone. It

interacts with other hormones in cows' bodies to control the

amount of milk they produce (CAERT, 2006).

The use of bovine somatotropin (BST) to increase milk

yield from dairy cows has had a long-chickened history and

is the subject of trade disputes a around the world. In 1993

even if Europeans' banned the use of BST dairy cattle even

for experimental studies, FDA approved BST for use in

U.S. because testing had revealed no concerns regarding

consumer safety (Juskevich and Guyer, 1990).

The BST, which is almost indistinguishable in

sequence from the natural hormone, is present in low

concentrations in milk and has no biologic activity in

humans. The level of IGF- 1, the hormone induced by BST,

is somewhat elevated within the "physiologic range" for

cows through genetic engineering (Burrin, 1997).

Lactating cows are injected with rBGH, to increase their

lactation period and even to determine stages of oestrous

cycle through bovine milk progesterone test. This hormone

interacts with other hormones in cows' bodies to increase

the amount of milk they produce (CAERT, 2006). The

greatest concerns about BST are probably in the area of

animal welfare. High-yield milking cows show a greater

incidence of mastitis than lower-producing cows, but

studies have shown that mastitis is not exacerbated by BST

administration. Another concern which is a practical one

for the dairy industry is a recent trend to breed heifers only

once and then to sustain milk production for as long as 600

days by using BST. Lengthening lactation via BST in

second calf and older cows is a larger contributor to having

fewer calves per lifetime in the herd than first-calf heifers.

The result has been a shortage of replacement heifers for

producers, since only one calf is born during the milking

life of the animal (Harlow, 2002).

Applications of Growth Hormones in Beef Animals

There are three synthetic hormones approved by the

U.S. Food and Drug Administration (U.S. FDA) for cattle

and sheep for meat production: the estrogenic compound

zeranol, the anabolic steroid trenbolone acetate (TBA), and

the progestin melengestrol acetate (MGA). In the United

States synthetic hormones are often administered as

implants and in combination with each other or with

natural hormones (17-β estradiol, progesterone, and

testosterone) at least once in their lifetime and many cattle

receive more than one implant (USDA, 2000).

There are six hormone growth promotants (HGPs)

approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

for cattle industry to enhance beef production both in

quantity and quality. These include three naturally

occurring hormones: Oestradiol, Progesterone and

Testosterone and three synthetically prepared hormones:

Zeranol, Trenbolone, and Melengestrol (CAERT, 2006).

Beef producers inject their cattle with growth hormones

because they improve meat quality by increasing the

development of lean meat and decreasing fat content;

Increase feed efficiency, thereby allowing more growth

with less feed; Reduce costs for producers thereby reducing

the price of meat and meat products for consumers

(National Academic Press, 2002).

Steroid hormones are used to increase the rate of weight

gain and to reduce accumulation of fat deposits of in young

heifers and steers. The steroids are administered by slow

release from a plastic implant embedded beneath the skin

of the ear, circulating levels of the hormone in the

bloodstream (Yajima et al., 2002). The mainly used

hormones are Zeranol, a naturally occurring fungal

metabolite (zearalenone) with estrogenic action; estradiol,

progesterone, and testosterone, or formulations of these

steroids and trenbolone (Doyle, 2000; Meyer et al., 2002).

The adverse effects of these hormones on human being

made it to be banned from use in the poultry and beef

industry. However, their presence in small amounts from

consumed meat derived from treated cattle and numerous

scientific studies indicate that these residues exist at low

concentrations that they pose little risk to consumers

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(European Commission, Scientific Committee on Animal

Health and Animal Welfare, 1999).

Geological Survey has recently documented the

presence of hormones in a number of streams and rivers

(Kolpin, 2002). Despite the scientific evidence for safety

that, the European Union implemented a ban on U.S. beef

imports, valued at over $100 million per year in 1989

(Avery and Avery, 2007). Hormones pose any sort of

environmental threat through their leaching into soil and

water. For example, studies have shown that a commonly

used androgenic growth promoter trenbolone has been

found in groundwater near cattle feedlots, and that this

growth promotor has androgenic effects (Bettina et al.,

2001).

Applications of Growth Hormones in Livestock Feeds

Production

The day to day decreases in yield, nutritional content,

palatability and genetic deterioration of forage crops due to

various biotic and a biotic factor such as stresses, diseases

and insect pest, salinity and other factors is a current

concern in animal production. The use of modern

biotechnology tools such as plant tissue culture for in vitro

regeneration can solve these problems. Tissue culture

technology is one of those means where growth hormones

are commonly incorporated as one component of the

growth medium.

Accordingly, the in vitro regeneration of plantlets needs

extra addition of growth hormones such as auxins,

cytokinins and gibberellins to the growth medium the

depending on the plant`s totipotency (Gana, 2010).

Reforestation of endangered forage crops through

germplasm conservation and manipulation through

germinated embryos in conjunction with specifically

controlled in vitro condition and exogenously application

of plant growth regulators are also other options which

completely depend on growth hormones (Jaime and

Texixeir, 2003; Amoo and Ayisire, 2005).

Growth hormone had been used as a feed widely in the

beef cattle industry. Australia had been implanted cattle

with around half of both grain-fed (feedlot) and pasture-

fed. Grain feeding cattle in feedlots in combination with

the use of hormone growth promotants (HGP) is

considered as efficient way of producing beef of consistent

taste, tenderness and colour to suit customer demand

(Hunter, 2010).

Feed additives are substances added to animals` feed to

provide a specific nutrient needed or increase an animal's

resistance to diseases by influencing the activity of

ruminant microbes. These are antibiotics: boost immune

systems, beta agonists: increase protein synthesis and

decrease fat production (in swine production) and

Melengestrol acetate (MGA): suppress oestrus (heifers for

harvest).

Applications of Growth Hormones in Reproductive

Processes of Livestock

Hormones play critical role in adjusting reproductive

processes in animal production. These are stimulation or

spermatogenesis, regular collection of semen and enriching

its quality (for male); stimulation of ovogenesis, regulation

of ovulation and the synchronisation of the estruses in the

large groups of animals (Kistanova, 2003).

Earlier evidences indicate that embryo recovery and

transfer provide the opportunity for a particularly animal to

parent many offspring in her lifetime than would be

otherwise possible (Seidel, 1984). The embryos also can be

frozen and then either stored or transported before they are

used to initiate a pregnancy. It is a relatively common

technology and has been used to produce around 40,000 to

50,000 thousand beef calves every year (National

Association of Animal Breeders, 1999). The approach is to

induce, by using hormones, the maturation and release of

more than a single egg from the ovaries (Driancourt, 2001).

Then, the animal usually is inseminated with semen from

an equally select bull, and the embryos are collected and

transferred individually, or in pairs, to the reproductive

tract of less valuable cows, which carry the calf to term.

Artificial insemination (AI) is another reproductive

process which is a popular and widely used in animal

breeding. AI is the transfer of semen collected from

artificially ejaculated male to a recipient female after female

estrous cycles are regulated with hormone injections

(Madan, 2002). Artificial insemination for best semen

quality evaluation by semen bank evaluates regarding the

processing, storage and thawing of semen procedures are

inadequate (Sansone et al., 2000). But several modifications

of the techniques have been suggested to increase the

conception rate. Oestrus synchronization and conception

rate improvement with different stimulants and use of

Gonadotropin-releasing hormones (GnRH) followed seven

day later by prostaglandin F2α (GnRH) (Schmitt et al.,

1996). An injection of GnRH on day 0, PGF2α on day 7 and

on day 9 is used for synchronization of ovulation and

permitting timed insemination.

Embryo transfer (ET) is one of the major reproductive

technologies that can facilitate genetic improvement in

cattle. Unfortunately, commercial ET programmes are

limited by the high variability in the ovarian follicular

response to gonadotropin stimulation (Madan, 2002). The

use of recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST) in dairy

cows increases both milk yield and production efficiency

and decreases animal fat. Also A porcine somatotropin has

been developed that increases muscle growth and reduces

body-fat deposition, resulting in pigs that are leaner and of

greater market value (National Academic Press, 2002).

Impacts of Recombinant Bovine Growth Hormones in

Milk Production

Animals treated with the hormone are subjected to

tremendous stress. For about 12 weeks after calving, a cow

produces milk. During this process, the cow loses weight,

is infertile and is more susceptible to diseases. As the milk

output diminishes, the cow's body begins to recover. By

injecting a cow with rBGH, a farmer extends this milching

period by eight to 12 weeks. Even as these hormone

injections substantially increase the cow's milk output, they

also make her more susceptible to disease.

The US Food and Drugs Administration (FDA)

requires Monsanto to state on the labels of every shipment

of Posilac (the name of the rBGH hormone), the 21 health

problems associated with the use of the hormone. These

include cystic ovaries, uterine disorders, decrease in

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gestation length and birth weight of calves, increased

twinning rates and retained placenta.

Hormone injected cows are susceptible to mastitis

inflammation of the udder. Since a cow with mastitis

produces milk with pus in it, something which is not

acceptable to dairies (dairies check milk for high somatic

cell count i.e. high proportion of pus), farmers give

antibiotics to treat the ailing cows (Growth Hormones in

Food, 2011).

Impacts of Growth Hormone in Beef Production

There are serious concerns about health and welfare of

animals in factory farms and those that are injected with

growth hormones. Organizations such as the None Profit

Animal Welfare Institute, supports family farms and the

humane treatment of animals and periodically check on

them. The place of injection and the gap between two

points where the hormone injections have been given are

very important. Places such as below the ear have

significant muscle movement, causing the lesion to enlarge

and the medication and irritation to spread beyond the site

of original injection (Growth Hormones in Food, 2011).

The ultimate unidirectional focus of research on

production or performance characteristics had brought

animal welfare effects of growth hormones. Feedlots

themselves may pose a risk to the welfare of cattle. A study

suggested that cattle with just an oestrogen implant are

adversely affected by hot climatic conditions and

managing heat load in feedlot cattle is crucial to animal's

welfare (Mader et al., 2005). In beef cattle production the

use of hormone growth promotants can causes uncommon

occurrence of chronic stress condition as signs of poor

welfare (Marin et al., 2008). This is occurred when

hormonal implants interact with the animal's natural

hormones.

Growth hormones in beef exposed Americans at risk

for infertility. A recent study found that women who

routinely ate beef were far more likely to give birth to boys

who grow up to have lower-than-normal sperm counts.

Hormone residues in beef have been implicated in the early

onset of puberty in girls, which could put them at greater

risk of developing breast and other forms of cancer

(Growth Hormones in Food, 2011).

Impacts of Synthetic Growth Hormones on

Environmental

Significant amounts of synthetic and natural hormones

and their metabolites are excreted in animal waste (Kolok

and Sellin, 2008). Beef cattle wastes are strongly

androgenic (Durhan et al., 2006). Synthetic hormones

excreted by animals are present in manure applied as

fertilizer and in feedlot retention ponds, and from there

they may be retained in soil or transported to ground and

surface water (Khan et al., 2008a; Lee et al., 2008b)

calculated the number of beef cattle implanted with

estrogens and androgens or progesterone, and the percent

of applied hormone that reach the environment via cattle

excrement. These numbers represent an increase in

estrogens and androgens or progesterone over natural

elimination rates. Livestock farming is thought to be the

major source of steroid hormones found in regional

groundwater (Davis et al., 2006) and external surface

water.

Humans are potentially exposed to the synthetic

hormones by consumption of commercial meat products

and from environmental exposures related to animal waste

(National Residue Program, 2006). Human exposure to

both the synthetic and natural hormones causes cancer,

reproductive effects, and other endocrine disruption

outcomes. Estrogen is carcinogenic, anabolic steroids are

reproductive toxicants and trenbolon is anabolic steroid.

TBA, zeranol, and MGA cross the placenta and are

detectable in fetal tissues in rabbits (Lange et al., 2002a).

Some evidences showed that xenobiotic growth

promoters and their metabolites are thought to be genotoxic

(Metzler and Feiffer, 2001). Veterinary use of hormones

causes postmenopausal women, and pre-pubertal children,

leaving them more vulnerable to the effects of exogenous

hormone exposure (UK VPC, 2006).

Conclusion

Growth hormones from different sources can play great

role in maximizing livestock production by being

physiological component of many processes. Almost all

animal production improvement ways are completely

dependent on growth hormones. For better yield and

quality in terms of contents in livestock products,

hormones can be incorporated unlikely from the normal

activity through different reproductive manipulations and

engineered genetically with foreign genes. Hormones can

be implanted for oestrus synchronization and super

ovulation during artificial insemination and embryo culture

(rBST and PST hormones for milk and fat free meat

production in cattle and pigs respectively). However, these

growth hormones have imposed deleterious impact on

human health (cancer, decrease in fertility), ground water

contamination, danger on animal welfare and others. So,

unless following natural procedure (organic) for

improvement of livestock production and search for

alternative solutions, the use of growth hormones

especially in genetically engineered organisms is

sustainable and will be at risk stage. From this short review

it was concluded that growth hormone plays a crucial role

in maximizing the animal products. Therefore, it was

suggested that using growth hormone in livestock

production is a wise technology in nowadays world.

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... 3. Production of hormones: Somatotropin (ST), a hormone produced by the pituitary gland, helps in improving growth and carcass composition. Pigs injected with ST produce fat free meat (Itana and Duguma, 2021). On the other hand, purification of ST requires 25-100 pituitary glands, which is not costeffective. ...

Increasing population, shift from plant-based to animal-based food consumption, scarcity of water and land resources are all escalating the world's food security issues. Biotechnology has developed as a powerful tool to improve a variety of sectors, including animal, plant, medicinal, and environmental etc. Animal Biotechnology is commonly used to raise not just the population of livestock, but also the demand for animal products around the world. Assisted reproductive techniques such as artificial insemination, in-vitro fertilization, embryo transfer technology and other related technologies of food-producing mammals. Along with their utilization in quality assurance programmes, improving quality of livestock products and production of various hormones and enzymes are discussed. Currently, several difficulties hinder the implementation of biotechnology due to lack of infrastructure and insufficient manpower. Therefore, funding from government is required if one has to enjoy the benefits of biotechnology.

Bali cattle ( Bos javanicus ) is one of the native cattle of Indonesia, which have excellent performance though reared in hot tropic condition with low quality of feed. As generally known, livestock performance is influenced by genetic and non-genetic such as environmental factors. Therefore, this study aims to determine the non-genetic factors on growth traits of Bali cattle. The material used in this study was Bali cattle that participated in the progeny test program, consisting of 20 bulls, 122 cows and 176 calves born three years in row. The data included sex, birth season, mating system, parity, and data on growth traits which included: birth weight (BW), weaning weight at 205 days (WW 205 ), yearling weight at 365 days (YW 365 ) and mature weight at 730 days (MW 730 ). Data were then analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The result shows that BW, YW 365 and MW 730 were influenced by birth season and sex (p<0.05), and WW 205 was influenced by sex and parity (p<0.05). Based on the result, we concluded that the performance of the Bali cattle population in this study was influenced by non-genetic factors that are birth season, sex and parity affect the growth traits of Bali cattle.

  • Eric Wade Peterson Eric Wade Peterson
  • R.K. Davis
  • Holly Anne. Orndorff

The poultry and cattle industries comprise a large segment of the agricultural economy in the mantled karst area of northwest Arkansas. The associated risks of nutrient and bacterial contamination to karst aquifers by poultry litter have been well documented. However, only recently have the risks associated with hormones, specifically 17 β-estradiol (E2), been addressed. During a winter recharge event, five springs in northwest Arkansas were samples and the waters were analyzed for E2, fecal coliform, and Escherichia coli. Analyses of the waters from five springs representing three different water-bearing formations revealed that E2 is present in the waters. Concentrations of E2 ranged from 6 to 66 ng/L. The observed E2 concentration trends imitated the changes in stage over the recharge event. The E2 concentration trends were similar to the concentration trends of both fecal coliform and E. coli at all five springs, indicating that the three components move in the mantled karst system similarly.

  • Elena Kistanova Elena Kistanova

The important aim of animal industry is the production of ecologically clean animal products. It is known that the wide use of synthetic hormones for stimulation of reproductive functions had shown numerous negative consequences, most important being their ability to accumulate in meat and milk. During the last 10 years the researches concerning the use of natural bio stimulants for reproduction have progressed. In this literature preview the experience in application of different bio stimulants from plant and animal products (placenta, colostrum, plant extracts, plant hormone) is described, which can improve the male and female reproductive functions of domestic animals.

Background: The autosomal-dominant Noonan syndrome (MIM 163950) is characterized by short stature, heart defects, characteristic facial dysmorphic features and other major and minor anomalies. Its incidence has been estimated to be 1 in 1,000 to 2,500 live births. Familial cases are frequent. Methods and Results: Recently, molecular data have suggested that deregulation of signaling through the Ras-mitogenactivated protein kinase (Ras-MAPK) pathway was the main molecular basis of Noonan syndrome. The frequently detected upstream defects of this pathway are gain-of-function mutations of PTPN11, which are associated with a mild form of growth hormone (GH) resistance and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) deficiency, presumably due to interference with the Janus kinase 2 and signal transducer and activator of transcription 5b (JAK2-STAT) signaling of the GH receptor. Present data suggest reduced GH responsiveness in these cases. Conclusions: Downstream defects of the RasMAPK pathway (like K-ras mutations) do not affect the JAK2STAT pathway, and therefore response to GH therapy is likely to be better in these cases. Copyright (c) 2007 S. Karger AG, Basel.

  • A. S. Gana A. S. Gana

Crop improvement through conventional methods to provide food security for the ever growing population has several limitations. Modern plant biotechnology has held promise over the years to improve outputs from plants. The use of growth hormones as a way of improving plant yield through micro propagation and somatic embryogenesis is the focus of this paper. Improved and disease resistant crops could easily be made available to farmers if the use of synthetic growth hormones for plantlet regeneration is vigorously pursued. In this technique, hormones like auxins, cytokinines and gibberellins could be made available at reduced cost to users for rapid multiplication of cultivated crops.

  • Alex Avery
  • Dennis Avery

Executive Summary Growth promoting hormones are a key component of North American beef production. Their use over the past 50+ years (since 1956) has proven beneficial not only to beef producers, but to consumers and the environment, who benefit from lower costs and more efficient use of scarce natural resources. In short, they allow us to achieve the old Yankee maxim of producing more from less. Every food safety authority that has examined their use and the resulting beef products have found them to be both safe and wholesome, helping to produce an overall leaner beef supply with minimal residues of no practical health consequence. This assessment is shared not only by the Food and Drug Administration of the United States and Health Canada, but also by the Codex Alimentarius Committee of the World Trade Organization, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the World Health Organization, and even a conference established by the European Agriculture Commission. There are six hormones approved for use in beef production in more than 30 countries. Three of these are natural, three synthetic. The three natural hormones (testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone) have been deemed completely safe for use in beef production, are a natural part of all mammalian physiology, and are released into the environment at levels well within natural ranges. Their use is uncontroversial.

  • R. A. Hunter

This review focuses on the science that underpins the use of hormonal growth promotants by Australian beef producers. Their effect on increased liveweight gain is reliable and they are used in the grass-fed industry to produce heavier carcasses suitable for the liveweight and age specifications on high value markets. With implants containing only oestradiol, the growth rate response varies between 0.05 and 0.1 kg/day, dependent on the digestible energy intake and the duration of the implant's functional life for which the animal is in positive energy balance. Combination implants containing both oestradiol and trenbolone acetate promote greater responses in liveweight gain, which can be as high as 0.2 kg/day on good quality pasture. Although there is also accelerated liveweight gain on energy-dense feedlot diets, the main commercial benefit is reduced feed costs associated with improvements in feed conversion efficiency. An example given demonstrates that finishing an implanted steer from 400 to 650 kg reduces feed consumed by similar to 4%. Androgenic hormones ( testosterone and trenbolone acetate) directly reduce fat content of the carcass. Oestradiol treatment increases mature body size so at any intermediate bodyweight the animal is less mature and likely to have less fat in the carcass. Hormonal treatment has a negative influence on the tenderness and eating quality of beef, the effect being more pronounced with combination implants than with oestradiol alone. Aging for up to 28 days of those muscles that age extensively helps to overcome the detrimental hormonal growth promotant effect.

  • Iris G Lange
  • Andreas Daxenberger
  • Bettina Schiffer
  • Heinrich H D Meyer

Endogenous hormones of human or animal origin have been reaching the environment for thousands of years, even though to an increasing extent due to growing population and more intensive farming. During the last decade the hormonal disrupting activity of different substances of both natural and anthropogenic origin, has been discussed for wildlife populations in various ecosystems and even for human fertility. So far, natural recycling has not been causally linked to any known severe adverse effect on wildlife or human endocrine system, but discussion on environmental endocrine disrupters has to be extended by this important aspect. The amount of sex steroids excreted by humans and livestock seems in the same order of magnitude, but the available data on their importance is still limited. Besides endogenous hormones, exogenous sex steroids used as anabolics in animals are excreted and reach the environment. The environmental fate of steroids originating from livestock excreta seems to be strongly influenced by storage conditions and also by the soil type of the fields where the dung is spread. Particle size and organic components strongly affect adsorption and migration in the soil. Our studies indicate that low concentrations of trenbolone and melengestrol acetate are very mobile in agricultural soils. However, both hormones have a high affinity to the organic fraction of the immobile phase leading to a high retardation within soil materials.

17β-trenbolone acetate (TBA) is a synthetic androgenic steroid hormone administered as a subcutaneous implant for growth promotion in beef cattle. TBA is converted metabolically to primarily 17α-trenbolone and trendione, and excreted in manure from implanted cattle. To predict the persistence of synthetic androgens once land-applied, aerobic degradation rates in two contrasting agricultural soil types (clay loam and a sandy soil) of both trenbolone isomers (17α and 17β) and their primary metabolite trendione were measured and isomer interconversion was assessed. The impact of manure application was also evaluated in the clay loam soil. A pseudo first-order exponential decay model was derived assuming irreversible transformation and no impact of sorption on availability for degradation. The model generally resulted in good fits to the data. Both isomers degraded to trendione in a similar manner with half-lives (t½) on the order of a few hours to 0.5 days at applied concentrations of ≤1 mg/kg. Similar degradation rates were observed in the presence and absence of manure applied at rates typical for land-application of cattle manure. Trenbolone degradation was concentration-dependent with degradation rates decreasing with increasing applied concentrations. Trendione, whether applied directly or produced from trenbolone, persisted longer than trenbolone with t½ values of 1 to 4 days. A small amount (1.5%) of conversion of trendione back to 17β-trenbolone was observed during aerobic incubation regardless of the applied concentration. A small amount of 17α-isomer also converted back to 17β-trenbolone, presumably through trendione. In autoclaved soils, no degradation of 17α- or 17β-trenbolone was observed during the first 3 days, and trendione degradation was relatively small compared to a microbially active soil.